x
هدف البحث
بحث في العناوين
بحث في المحتوى
بحث في اسماء الكتب
بحث في اسماء المؤلفين
اختر القسم
موافق
Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Simple
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Passive and Active
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
literature
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
The fourfold classification
المؤلف: Rochelle Lieber
المصدر: Introducing Morphology
الجزء والصفحة: 132-7
24-1-2022
532
Morphological typology has a long history, going back at least to the early nineteenth century in the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1836; reference in Comrie 1981/1989). In this tradition, also developed by the linguist Edward Sapir, who we mentioned above, it was common to divide languages into four morphological types: isolating (or analytic), agglutinative, fusional, and polysynthetic.
An isolating or analytic language is one in which each word consists of one and only one morpheme. Vietnamese is often cited as an example of an isolating language. For example, nouns do not inflect for plurality. The noun dông h ̓ ô ̓ means ‘watch’ or ‘watches’. If one wants to be specific about how many watches are in question, it is possible to use a numeral and then a noun classifier before the noun (Nguyen and Jorden 1969: 119), as (41a) shows:
Similarly, as (41b) illustrates, verbs do not inflect for tense in Vietnamese. Instead, if one wants to be specific about the time of an event, it is necessary to use specific adverbs like ‘tomorrow’ or ‘yesterday’.
Of the languages we have profiled in section 7.3, Mandarin comes closest to being an isolating language. Although Mandarin has abundant compounding, it has little that would count as morphological inflection. Like Vietnamese, plurality, tense, and aspect are all expressed by separate words
Unlike isolating languages, agglutinative languages have complex words. Furthermore, those words are easily segmented into separate morphemes and each morpheme carries a single chunk of meaning. In our grammatical sketches in 7.3, Turkish is the language that comes closest to an agglutinative ideal. For example, we gave the various case forms of the Turkish noun ‘house’ in (10), repeated here (42):
To form the plurals of these nouns, all one needs to do is add the morpheme -ler, which goes after the root and before the case endings:
The two sorts of morphemes are easily separated in terms of both form and meaning.
A fusional language, like an agglutinative language, allows complex words, but its morphemes are not necessarily easily segmentable: several meanings may be packed into each morpheme, and sometimes it may be hard to decide where one morpheme ends and another one starts. Latin is a good example of a fusional language. We can, for example, compare the noun paradigm in Latin with that in Turkish. Whereas it is easy in Turkish to separate off one morpheme that means ‘plural’ and another that means ‘genitive’, it is not possible find separate morphemes that go with those concepts in Latin. Let’s look again at the paradigm for ‘girl’ in Latin in example (27), repeated here:
If we assume that the root for the noun ‘girl’ is puell, the best we can do is to say that the morpheme that means genitive singular is -ae and the one that means genitive plural is -ārum. Each of these also carries gender information (remember that nouns with these endings are most often feminine) as well. But there is no way of separating part of these morphemes into smaller pieces that mean ‘genitive’ or ‘singular’ or ‘plural’ or ‘feminine’). This is the hallmark of fusional morphology.
The final morphological type is called polysynthetic. In a polysynthetic language words are frequently extremely complex, consisting of many morphemes, some of which have meanings that are typically expressed by separate lexemes in other languages. In our grammatical sketches in section 7.3, Nishnaabemwin is a language that could easily be characterized as polysynthetic. Remember that it not only has an intricate inflectional system, but forms complex words out of two or more bound bases.
Here is an illustration of polysynthesis (Valentine 2001: 330, 334):
These forms can then act as bases for all the inflectional affixes that attach to intransitive verbs in Nishnaabemwin.