Complementary Interactions between Proteins and Ligands: The Immune System and Immunoglobulins: -The Immune Response Features a Specialized Array of Cells and Proteins

Immunity is brought about by a variety of leukocytes (white blood cells), including macrophages and lymphocytes, all developing from undifferentiated stem cells in the bone marrow. Leukocytes can leave the bloodstream and patrol the tissues, each cell producing one or more proteins capable of recognizing and binding to molecules that might signal an infection. The immune response consists of two complementary systems, the humoral and cellular immune systems. The humoral immune system (Latin humor, “fluid”) is directed at bacterial infections and extracellular viruses (those found in the body fluids), but can also respond to individual proteins introduced into the organism. The cellular immune system destroys host cells infected by viruses and also destroys some para sites and foreign tissues.

The proteins at the heart of the humoral immune response are soluble proteins called antibodies or immunoglobulins, often abbreviated Ig. Immunoglobulins bind bacteria, viruses, or large molecules identified as foreign and target them for destruction. Making up 20% of blood protein, the immunoglobulins are produced by B lymphocytes, or B cells, so named because they complete their development in the bone marrow. The agents at the heart of the cellular immune response are a class of T lymphocytes, or T cells (so called because the latter stages of their development occur in the thymus), known as cytotoxic T cells (TC cells, also called killer T cells). Recognition of infected cells or parasites involves proteins called T-cell receptors on the surface of TC cells. Receptors are proteins, usually found on the outer surface of cells and extending through the plasma membrane; they recognize and bind extracellular ligands, triggering changes inside the cell.

In addition to cytotoxic T cells, there are helper T cells (TH cells), whose function it is to produce soluble signaling proteins called cytokines, which include the interleukins. TH cells interact with macrophages. Table 5–2 summarizes the functions of the various leukocytes of the immune system. Each recognition protein of the immune system, ei ther an antibody produced by a B cell or a receptor on the surface of a T cell, specifically binds some particular chemical structure, distinguishing it from virtually all others. Humans are capable of producing more than 108 different antibodies with distinct binding specificities. This extraordinary diversity makes it likely that any chemical structure on the surface of a virus or invading cell will be recognized and bound by one or more anti bodies. Antibody diversity is derived from random re assembly of a set of immunoglobulin gene segments through genetic recombination mechanisms that are dis cussed in Chapter 25 (see Fig. 25–44).

Some properties of the interactions between anti bodies or T-cell receptors and the molecules they bind are unique to the immune system, and a specialized lex icon is used to describe them. Any molecule or pathogen capable of eliciting an immune response is called an antigen. An antigen may be a virus, a bacterial cell wall, or an individual protein or other macromolecule. A com plex antigen may be bound by a number of different antibodies. An individual antibody or T-cell receptor binds only a particular molecular structure within the antigen, called its antigenic determinant or epitope. It would be unproductive for the immune system to respond to small molecules that are common intermediates and products of cellular metabolism. Molecules of Mr 5,000 are generally not antigenic. However, small molecules can be covalently attached to large proteins in the laboratory, and in this form, they may elicit an immune response. These small molecules are called hap tens. The antibodies produced in response to protein linked haptens will then bind to the same small molecules when they are free. Such antibodies are sometimes used in the development of analytical tests described later in this chapter or as catalytic antibodies (see Box 6–3). The interactions of antibody and antigen are much better understood than are the binding proper ties of T-cell receptors. However, before focusing on antibodies, we need to look at the humoral and cellular immune systems in more detail to put the fundamental biochemical interactions into their proper context.

اخر الاخبار

اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة

مؤسّسة الوافي تُهدي مكتبةَ مسجد الكوفة نسخةً من موسوعة فتوى الدفاع الكفائي

المجمع العلمي يقيم برنامج (سراج المنتظرين) في محافظة المثنى

قسم الشؤون الفكرية ينظم ندوة فكرية عن أبعاد نهضة الإمام الصادق (عليه السلام)

العتبة العباسية المقدسة تناقش تكثيف جهودها الإغاثية لدعم الشعبين الإيراني واللبناني

المزيد

الآخبار الصحية

دواء جديد يحمي القلب ويعزز علاج السرطان في آن واحد

سر غذائي بسيط لحماية القلب مع التقدم في العمر

علامات تشير إلى اختلال عمل الغدة الدرقية

السمنة واللقاحات.. دراسة تكشف تأثيراً سلبياً

المزيد

الآخبار التكنلوجية

البعوض في آيسلندا إشارة مبكرة على تحولات بيئية في القطب الشمالي

صاروخ يطلق قمرا اصطناعيا في مدار خاطئ

"أوبن إيه آي" تطلق نموذجا للعلوم الحيوية واكتشاف الأدوية

تفوق على البشر.. روبوت يحطم الرقم القياسي لسباق نصف ماراثون !

المزيد

مواضيع ذات صلة

Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding Proteins: -Sickle-Cell Anemia Is a Molecular Disease of Hemoglobin

Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding Proteins: -Oxygen Binding to Hemoglobin Is Regulated by 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate

Protein Denaturation and Folding: - Loss of Protein Structure Results in Loss of Function

Protein Tertiary and Quaternary Structures: -There Are Limits to the Size of Proteins

Protein Tertiary and Quaternary Structures: -Protein Quaternary Structures Range from Simple Dimers to Large Complexes

Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding Proteins: -Protein-Ligand Interactions Can Be Described Quantitatively

Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding Proteins:- Myoglobin Has a Single Binding Site for Oxygen

Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding Proteins:- Oxygen Can Be Bound to a Heme Prosthetic Group

Protein Denaturation and Folding:- Some Proteins Undergo Assisted Folding

Protein Denaturation and Folding:- Polypeptides Fold Rapidly by a Stepwise Process

Protein Denaturation and Folding: - Amino Acid Sequence Determines Tertiary Structure

Protein Tertiary and Quaternary Structures: -Protein Quaternary Structures Range from Simple Dimers to Large Complexes